The Subjugation of Women: A Historical Survey

From Scripture to Practice

The previous lesson examined what the Quran says about women. This lesson examines how those teachings have been applied throughout Islamic history— from Muhammad's own household to the present day.

The historical record is complex. There have been exceptional Muslim women who achieved education, influence, and even political power. There have been periods of relative freedom and others of severe restriction. But the underlying pattern—shaped by the Quranic texts we examined—has been one of systemic subjugation, with women's lives controlled by fathers, husbands, and male guardians according to Islamic law.

Women in Muhammad's Household

The treatment of women in Islam begins with Muhammad's own example, which Muslims consider the model for all time.

Muhammad's Marriages

Muhammad had between 11 and 13 wives (sources vary), plus an unknown number of concubines. His marriages included:

• Khadijah: His first wife, a wealthy widow 15 years his senior. Their marriage was apparently monogamous and happy, though Khadijah died before Muhammad's rise to power.
• Aisha: Betrothed at 6, married at 9 (as discussed in our earlier lesson). She remained his favorite wife.
• Sawda: A widow married shortly after Khadijah's death.
• Hafsa: Daughter of Umar, widowed at Badr.
• Zaynab bint Jahsh: The divorced wife of Muhammad's adopted son Zayd. Muhammad received a revelation (Quran 33:37) permitting him to marry her—despite the cultural taboo against marrying an adopted son's ex-wife. This revelation also abolished adoption in Islam.
• Juwayriyya: A captive from the Banu Mustaliq raid.
• Safiyya: A Jewish woman captured at Khaybar, whose father, husband, and brother had just been killed by Muslims. Muhammad married her the same night.
• Maria the Copt: A slave girl sent as a gift from the ruler of Egypt. She bore Muhammad a son, Ibrahim, who died in infancy.

The Convenient Revelations

Several Quranic revelations addressed situations in Muhammad's household, typically in ways that favored his desires:

• Unlimited wives: Quran 33:50 granted Muhammad permission to exceed the four-wife limit binding on other Muslims.
• Zaynab's marriage: Quran 33:37 authorized marrying his adopted son's ex-wife.
• Wives' conduct: Quran 33:28-34 addressed disputes in Muhammad's household, warning his wives that they could be replaced.
• The "honey" incident: According to hadith, when Muhammad's wives complained about his relationship with Maria or about him eating honey at another wife's house, Quran 66:1-5 was revealed rebuking them.

The pattern is clear: when tensions arose in Muhammad's household, Allah reliably provided revelations supporting Muhammad's position.

Aisha's Accusation

The "Affair of the Necklace" (or "Event of Ifk") illustrates the precarious position of women—even the Prophet's favorite wife. When Aisha was left behind during a journey and returned with a young man who found her, rumors spread that she had committed adultery. For a month, Muhammad refused to speak with her. She was only vindicated when a Quranic revelation (24:11-20) declared her innocent and prescribed 80 lashes for those who made such accusations without four witnesses.

Note the dynamic: Aisha's honor depended entirely on divine revelation. Without it, even the Prophet's beloved wife could be divorced and shamed based on rumor.

Women in Classical Islamic Civilization

The Legal Framework

Islamic law (Sharia), as codified in the classical period, established a comprehensive system governing women's lives:

• Guardianship (wilaya): Women remained under male guardianship from birth to death—father, then husband, then son or other male relative.
• Marriage contracts: The guardian gave the woman in marriage; her consent was required by some schools but could be implied (silence = consent).
• Divorce: Men could divorce unilaterally by pronouncing talaq; women could only obtain divorce through judicial process with proof of specific grounds.
• Testimony: Women's testimony was worth half a man's in most legal proceedings and inadmissible in hudud (criminal) cases.
• Mobility: Women required male permission to travel.
• Seclusion: The practice of purdah (segregation) was widely enforced, with women confined to domestic spaces.

Education

Female education in classical Islam was primarily domestic—learning from female relatives within the home. Some elite women received education in Quran, hadith, and basic literacy, and a small number became recognized scholars (particularly in hadith transmission). However, systematic education for girls was rare, and illiteracy among women was the norm.

Slavery and Concubinage

Perhaps the darkest aspect of women's status in classical Islam was the institution of sexual slavery:

• Female slaves (captured in war or purchased) could be used sexually by their masters without marriage.
• A concubine who bore her master's child (umm walad) gained certain protections but remained a slave until his death.
• The Arab slave trade, which lasted over a millennium, trafficked millions of African women (and men) into the Islamic world.
• Harems—collections of wives and concubines—were status symbols for wealthy men and rulers.

This was not a corruption of Islam but an implementation of Quranic provisions for "those your right hand possesses."

The Harem System

The Ottoman harem exemplified the classical Islamic treatment of women at its most elaborate. The Imperial Harem included:

• The sultan's mother (valide sultan), who held real power
• His legal wives (up to four)
• Hundreds of concubines (slave women)
• Female servants and eunuch guards

Women in the harem lived in luxurious captivity, competing for the sultan's favor, bearing children, and navigating deadly palace politics. They could not leave without permission and were literally the property of the sultan.

Honor-Based Violence

The concept of family "honor" (ird) being located in women's sexual purity has made women vulnerable to violence throughout Islamic history and continues today.

Honor Killings

Honor killing is the murder of a woman (usually by male relatives) for perceived sexual impropriety—which can include:

• Premarital or extramarital relations (actual or suspected)
• Being raped (she has "dishonored" the family)
• Refusing an arranged marriage
• Seeking divorce
• Being seen with an unrelated man
• "Westernized" behavior

While not prescribed in the Quran, honor killing is deeply rooted in Islamic culture and often receives light punishment (or none) in Muslim-majority countries. The UN estimates 5,000 honor killings occur annually, though the actual number is likely far higher.

Countries and Cases

• Pakistan: Over 1,000 documented honor killings per year. The law was amended in 2016 but loopholes remain.
• Jordan: Article 340 of the Penal Code provided reduced sentences for honor killings until recently.
• Palestinian territories: Approximately 20-30 documented cases annually.
• In the West: Cases occur in immigrant communities— Aqsa Parvez (Canada, 2007), Amina and Sarah Said (Texas, 2008), and others.

Sharia's Complicity

While Sharia does not prescribe honor killing specifically, it creates the conditions that enable it:

• The concept of family honor residing in female purity
• Death penalty for adultery (if proven)
• Reduced penalties for crimes of "passion" or "provocation"
• Women's subordinate legal status making justice difficult
• Cultural silence around "family matters"

Modern Applications

Saudi Arabia

Until recent reforms, Saudi Arabia's male guardianship system (wilaya) required women to obtain male permission to:

• Travel (even domestically)
• Obtain a passport
• Marry or divorce
• Access healthcare
• Work or open a bank account
• Drive (banned until 2018)

Some restrictions have been loosened under Mohammed bin Salman's reforms, but the underlying framework remains. Women who attempted to flee (like Rahaf Mohammed al-Qunun in 2019) risked being forcibly returned to their guardians.

Iran

Since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran has imposed strict Islamic law on women:

• Mandatory hijab (enforced by morality police with fines, imprisonment)
• Segregation in public spaces and transportation
• Restricted access to certain professions and fields of study
• Unequal inheritance and divorce rights
• Blood money (diya) for a woman is half that of a man

The 2022 death of Mahsa Amini after arrest by morality police for "improper hijab" sparked massive protests—and brutal suppression.

Afghanistan

The Taliban's treatment of women represents perhaps the most extreme modern application of Islamic teaching:

Taliban Rule 1996-2001:

• Girls banned from education after age 8
• Women banned from working outside the home
• Mandatory burqa covering
• Public flogging and execution for violations
• Windows painted so women inside couldn't be seen

Taliban Rule 2021-Present:

• Girls banned from secondary and higher education
• Women banned from most employment
• Women banned from parks, gyms, beauty salons
• Travel restricted without male guardian
• NGOs banned from employing women (leading to aid withdrawal)

The Taliban justify these policies as implementing authentic Islamic law—and they have substantial textual support for this claim.

ISIS/Islamic State

The Islamic State's treatment of women demonstrated the logical extreme of certain Islamic teachings:

• Strict veiling and seclusion enforced by religious police
• Women sold as sex slaves (particularly Yazidi women)
• Published price lists for female slaves based on age
• Justified sexual slavery citing Quranic provisions

While ISIS was extreme, their justifications drew directly from classical Islamic sources on "those your right hand possesses."

Reformist Voices and Resistance

It is important to acknowledge that many Muslims—particularly Muslim women— resist these teachings and practices.

Islamic Feminism

A movement of Muslim scholars and activists attempts to reinterpret Islamic texts in more egalitarian ways:

• Amina Wadud: Argues for gender-egalitarian Quranic interpretation
• Fatema Mernissi: Moroccan sociologist who challenged patriarchal hadith
• Musawah movement: International movement for equality in Muslim family law

However, these reformists face significant obstacles:

• The plain meaning of key texts is difficult to escape.
• 1,400 years of scholarship support patriarchal interpretations.
• Reformists face accusations of heresy, apostasy, and Western influence.
• In some countries, their work is illegal.

Brave Women

Despite the dangers, countless Muslim women resist:

• Iranian women removing hijabs in protest
• Afghan girls attending secret schools
• Saudi women fleeing guardianship
• Activists like Manal al-Sharif (driving ban) and Loujain al-Hathloul (imprisoned for activism)

Christians should support these women while honestly acknowledging that they fight against their own tradition's authoritative teachings.

The Christian Response

1. Acknowledge Our Own Failures

The church has sometimes failed women—through patriarchy, abuse, and silence. We must own this honestly before critiquing Islam.

2. Affirm the Biblical Vision

Christianity offers a radically different vision:

• Women created in God's image (Genesis 1:27)
• Jesus dignifying women throughout his ministry
• Women as first witnesses to the resurrection
• Neither male nor female in Christ (Galatians 3:28)
• Husbands called to self-sacrificial love (Ephesians 5:25)

3. Support Muslim Women

Christians can support Muslim women through:

• Refugee assistance and advocacy
• Supporting organizations that help women escaping abuse or forced marriage
• Building friendships with Muslim women in our communities
• Sharing the Gospel's liberating message

4. Speak the Truth

We must be willing to name the problem: Islamic teaching, not just "culture," subjugates women. This is not Islamophobia but honesty—and Muslim women deserve honesty from those who claim to care about them.

Conclusion: A Legacy of Subjugation

The historical treatment of women in Islamic civilization flows directly from the Quranic foundations examined in our previous lesson. From Muhammad's household to the Taliban's Afghanistan, the pattern is consistent: women as subordinate, controlled, and defined by their relationship to men.

There have been exceptional women, periods of relative freedom, and brave reformers. But the mainstream of Islamic tradition has been one of patriarchal control—because that is what the authoritative sources teach.

Christians must understand this history to engage thoughtfully with Muslims, to support Muslim women seeking freedom, and to share a Gospel that proclaims the equal dignity of all people before God.

This freedom—including freedom from religiously-sanctioned oppression—is what we offer to our Muslim neighbors, and especially to the women among them.